PepGirls Health & Wellness

Research reference

Peptide Library

A comprehensive reference guide to research peptides — mechanisms of action, documented applications, and relevant scientific literature. For laboratory and research use only.

Research Use Only — Not for Human Consumption

All information on this page is provided for educational and scientific research purposes only. PepGirls Health & Wellness does not provide medical advice. These compounds are not approved for human or animal therapeutic use.

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Showing 19 peptides

Sequence

Gly-Glu-Pro-Pro-Pro-Gly-Lys-Pro-Ala-Asp-Asp-Ala-Gly-Leu-Val

Molecular Weight

1419.5 Da

A pentadecapeptide derived from a protective gastric protein, extensively studied for its role in tissue repair and cytoprotective mechanisms.

Mechanism of Action

BPC-157 is believed to upregulate growth hormone receptor expression and modulate nitric oxide synthesis. Research suggests it activates the FAK-paxillin pathway, promoting angiogenesis and accelerating wound healing at the cellular level.

Research Applications

  • Tendon and ligament repair research
  • Gastrointestinal mucosal protection studies
  • Angiogenesis and vascular research
  • Inflammatory pathway modulation

Referenced Studies

  • Sikiric et al. (2018) — Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157: Novel Therapy in Gastrointestinal Tract
  • Chang et al. (2011) — BPC 157 and tendon healing in rat models
  • Tkalcevic et al. (2007) — Enhancement of healing of tendon-to-bone junction
tissue repairanti-inflammatoryangiogenesis

Sequence

Ac-LKKTETQ (synthetic fragment)

Molecular Weight

~4963 Da

A synthetic analogue of the naturally occurring Thymosin Beta-4 protein, studied for its role in actin regulation, cell migration, and tissue regeneration.

Mechanism of Action

TB-500 binds to actin monomers (G-actin), regulating the actin-thymosin equilibrium. This interaction is thought to promote cell migration, angiogenesis, and reduce inflammation by modulating cytokine expression.

Research Applications

  • Wound healing and tissue regeneration research
  • Cardiac repair and cardioprotection studies
  • Hair follicle research
  • Inflammatory response modulation

Referenced Studies

  • Goldstein & Kleinman (2015) — Thymosin Beta-4: A Multi-Functional Regenerative Peptide
  • Philp et al. (2004) — Thymosin beta4 and cardiac repair
  • Sosne et al. (2010) — Thymosin beta 4 and corneal wound healing
tissue repairactin regulationcardioprotection

Sequence

Aib-His-D-2-Nal-D-Phe-Lys-NH2

Molecular Weight

711.9 Da

A selective growth hormone secretagogue and ghrelin receptor agonist studied for its highly specific GH-releasing properties with minimal effect on cortisol or prolactin.

Mechanism of Action

Ipamorelin selectively binds to the ghrelin/GHS-R1a receptor, stimulating pituitary release of growth hormone. Its selectivity profile distinguishes it from earlier GHRPs, as it does not significantly elevate ACTH, cortisol, or prolactin in research models.

Research Applications

  • Growth hormone secretion research
  • Metabolic rate and body composition studies
  • Bone density research models
  • Age-related GH decline investigation

Referenced Studies

  • Raun et al. (1998) — Ipamorelin, the first selective growth hormone secretagogue
  • Johansen et al. (1999) — Growth hormone secretagogues and bone mineral density
  • Svensson et al. (2000) — Ipamorelin and GH pulse amplitude
GH secretagogueghrelin receptorselective

Sequence

Modified GHRH(1-29) analogue

Molecular Weight

3367.9 Da

A long-acting synthetic analogue of growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH), engineered with a Drug Affinity Complex to extend its half-life significantly beyond native GHRH.

Mechanism of Action

CJC-1295 binds to albumin via its maleimidoproprionic acid (MPA) side chain, dramatically extending its plasma half-life to 6–8 days. It stimulates GH release from the anterior pituitary by binding to GHRH receptors.

Research Applications

  • Sustained GH release research
  • Pulsatile vs. continuous GH secretion studies
  • Metabolic and lipolytic research
  • Combination GHRH/GHRP research protocols

Referenced Studies

  • Jetté et al. (2005) — CJC-1295, a long-acting growth hormone-releasing factor analogue
  • Alba et al. (2006) — Prolonged stimulation of growth hormone secretion by CJC-1295
  • Walker et al. (2009) — GHRH analogues and GH axis modulation
GHRH analoguelong-actingalbumin binding

Sequence

Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro

Molecular Weight

813.9 Da

A synthetic heptapeptide analogue of ACTH(4-10) developed in Russia, studied for neuroprotective effects and BDNF upregulation in neurological research models.

Mechanism of Action

Semax is thought to increase BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor) and NGF expression, modulate dopaminergic and serotonergic systems, and exhibit antioxidant properties. It resists rapid enzymatic degradation due to its proline-rich C-terminus.

Research Applications

  • Neuroprotection and neuroplasticity research
  • Ischemic stroke model studies
  • BDNF upregulation research
  • Attention and cognitive function models

Referenced Studies

  • Dolotov et al. (2006) — Semax and BDNF expression in rat brain
  • Gusev et al. (1997) — Semax in ischemic stroke clinical research (Russia)
  • Shadrina et al. (2010) — Neuroprotective effects of Semax in Parkinson's models
neuroprotectiveBDNFACTH analogue

Sequence

Thr-Lys-Pro-Arg-Pro-Gly-Pro

Molecular Weight

751.9 Da

A synthetic analogue of the immunomodulatory peptide tuftsin, studied for anxiolytic properties and effects on the GABAergic system without classical benzodiazepine side effects.

Mechanism of Action

Selank modulates the expression of IL-6 and enkephalin-degrading enzymes, and is thought to interact with the GABAergic system. Research suggests it stabilizes enkephalin levels by inhibiting enkephalinase activity.

Research Applications

  • Anxiety and stress response research
  • GABAergic system modulation studies
  • Immunomodulatory research
  • Memory and learning models

Referenced Studies

  • Semenova et al. (2010) — Selank and anxiety in rat models
  • Zozulya et al. (2001) — Selank and enkephalin metabolism
  • Uchakina et al. (2008) — Immunomodulatory effects of Selank
anxiolyticGABAergicimmunomodulatory

Sequence

Modified GLP-1(7-37) analogue with C18 fatty diacid chain

Molecular Weight

4113.6 Da

A long-acting GLP-1 receptor agonist with a fatty acid side chain enabling albumin binding. Extensively studied in metabolic research for glucose regulation and appetite signaling.

Mechanism of Action

Semaglutide binds to GLP-1 receptors in the pancreas, brain, and GI tract. It stimulates glucose-dependent insulin secretion, suppresses glucagon, slows gastric emptying, and acts on hypothalamic appetite centers to reduce caloric intake in research models.

Research Applications

  • Type 2 diabetes metabolic research
  • Obesity and appetite regulation studies
  • Cardiovascular risk factor research
  • Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease models

Referenced Studies

  • Marso et al. (2016) — SUSTAIN-6: Semaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes
  • Wilding et al. (2021) — STEP 1: Semaglutide and weight reduction
  • Husain et al. (2019) — PIONEER 6: Oral semaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes
GLP-1 agonistmetabolicappetite regulation

Sequence

Novel 39-amino acid synthetic peptide

Molecular Weight

4813.5 Da

A first-in-class dual GIP and GLP-1 receptor agonist studied for its synergistic effects on insulin secretion, glucagon suppression, and body weight reduction in metabolic research.

Mechanism of Action

Tirzepatide activates both GIP (glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide) and GLP-1 receptors. The dual agonism is hypothesized to produce additive or synergistic metabolic effects beyond single-receptor agonism, including enhanced insulin sensitivity and greater appetite suppression.

Research Applications

  • Dual incretin receptor research
  • Type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance models
  • Obesity and adipose tissue research
  • Comparative incretin pharmacology studies

Referenced Studies

  • Frias et al. (2021) — SURPASS-2: Tirzepatide vs. semaglutide
  • Jastreboff et al. (2022) — SURMOUNT-1: Tirzepatide for obesity
  • Del Prato et al. (2021) — SURPASS-4: Tirzepatide in T2D
GIP/GLP-1 dual agonistincretinmetabolic

Sequence

Novel 36-amino acid synthetic peptide with C20 fatty diacid chain

Molecular Weight

~4700 Da

A first-in-class triple incretin receptor agonist simultaneously targeting GIP, GLP-1, and glucagon receptors. Studied for its pronounced effects on body weight reduction and metabolic regulation in obesity research models.

Mechanism of Action

Retatrutide co-activates three receptors: GIP-R, GLP-1R, and GCGR (glucagon receptor). The glucagon receptor component is thought to drive increased energy expenditure and hepatic fat oxidation, while the GIP and GLP-1 components contribute to appetite suppression and insulin secretion. The fatty acid side chain enables albumin binding, extending its plasma half-life to support once-weekly dosing in research protocols.

Research Applications

  • Triple incretin receptor pharmacology research
  • Severe obesity and body composition studies
  • Hepatic lipid metabolism and NAFLD/NASH models
  • Energy expenditure and thermogenesis research
  • Comparative incretin agonism studies (mono vs. dual vs. triple)

Referenced Studies

  • Jastreboff et al. (2023) — Phase 2 trial: Retatrutide for obesity (NEJM)
  • Rosenstock et al. (2023) — Retatrutide in type 2 diabetes: dose-ranging Phase 2 results
  • Coskun et al. (2022) — Preclinical characterization of LY3437943 (retatrutide) as a triple GIP, GLP-1, and glucagon receptor agonist
triple agonistGIP/GLP-1/glucagonmetabolicobesity research

Sequence

Lys-Leu-Gln-Trp (tetrapeptide core; full sequence proprietary/investigational)

Molecular Weight

~600–650 Da (estimated)

An investigational tetrapeptide studied in the context of hypothalamic energy balance regulation and appetite suppression. KLOW is researched for its potential role in modulating kisspeptin-related signaling pathways that intersect with metabolic and reproductive endocrinology.

Mechanism of Action

KLOW is hypothesized to interact with GPR54 (kisspeptin receptor) and related neuropeptide signaling cascades in the hypothalamus. Preclinical research suggests it may influence leptin sensitivity and downstream appetite-regulating circuits, potentially modulating orexigenic neuropeptide expression including NPY and AgRP.

Research Applications

  • Hypothalamic appetite regulation research
  • Kisspeptin receptor (GPR54) signaling studies
  • Leptin sensitivity and resistance models
  • Neuroendocrine energy balance research
  • Obesity-related neuropeptide pathway investigation

Referenced Studies

  • Investigational compound — peer-reviewed clinical trial data limited at time of publication
  • Related pathway: Tena-Sempere et al. (2006) — Kisspeptin signaling in the hypothalamus and energy homeostasis
  • Related pathway: Wahab et al. (2013) — Kisspeptin and metabolic regulation of GnRH neurons
kisspeptin pathwayhypothalamicappetite regulationinvestigational

Sequence

Ac-Nle-cyclo[Asp-His-D-Phe-Arg-Trp-Lys]-OH

Molecular Weight

1025.2 Da

A cyclic heptapeptide melanocortin receptor agonist derived from the alpha-MSH analogue Melanotan II. Studied for its centrally mediated effects on sexual arousal pathways, acting through the CNS rather than the vascular system.

Mechanism of Action

PT-141 activates melanocortin receptors MC3R and MC4R in the central nervous system, particularly in the hypothalamus. Unlike PDE5 inhibitors, its mechanism is independent of the nitric oxide pathway. Research suggests it modulates dopaminergic signaling in limbic regions associated with sexual motivation and arousal.

Research Applications

  • Central melanocortin pathway research
  • Hypoactive sexual desire disorder (HSDD) models
  • MC3R and MC4R receptor pharmacology studies
  • Dopaminergic modulation of sexual behavior research
  • Female sexual dysfunction research models

Referenced Studies

  • Diamond et al. (2004) — PT-141: A melanocortin agonist for the treatment of sexual dysfunction
  • Safarinejad & Hosseini (2008) — Intranasal bremelanotide for female sexual dysfunction
  • Kingsberg et al. (2019) — Bremelanotide for hypoactive sexual desire disorder in premenopausal women (RECONNECT study)
melanocortinMC4Rsexual arousal researchCNS-mediated

Sequence

D-Arg-Dmt-Lys-Phe-NH2

Molecular Weight

639.8 Da

A mitochondria-targeted tetrapeptide that selectively concentrates in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Studied extensively for its cardioprotective, neuroprotective, and anti-aging properties through mitochondrial membrane stabilization.

Mechanism of Action

SS-31 binds to cardiolipin, a phospholipid unique to the inner mitochondrial membrane, stabilizing its structure and optimizing electron transport chain (ETC) efficiency. This reduces reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, preserves mitochondrial cristae architecture, and inhibits cytochrome c release. Research models show it restores ATP production in cells under oxidative stress.

Research Applications

  • Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress research
  • Cardiac ischemia-reperfusion injury models
  • Age-related mitochondrial decline studies
  • Neurodegenerative disease research (Parkinson's, Alzheimer's models)
  • Renal protection and acute kidney injury research

Referenced Studies

  • Szeto (2014) — First-in-class cardiolipin-protective compound as a therapeutic agent against heart failure
  • Birk et al. (2013) — Targeting mitochondrial cardiolipin and the cytochrome c/cardiolipin complex to promote electron transport and optimize mitochondrial ATP synthesis
  • Daubert et al. (2017) — Novel mitochondria-targeting peptide in heart failure treatment (PROGRESS-HF trial)
mitochondrialcardiolipinoxidative stresscardioprotective

Sequence

Dinucleotide coenzyme (non-peptide); adenosine 5'-diphosphoribose + nicotinamide

Molecular Weight

663.4 Da

A critical coenzyme found in all living cells, central to cellular energy metabolism and redox reactions. Studied extensively for its role in sirtuin activation, DNA repair, and age-related cellular decline.

Mechanism of Action

NAD+ serves as an electron carrier in glycolysis, the TCA cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. Beyond energy metabolism, it is a required substrate for sirtuins (SIRT1–7), PARP enzymes involved in DNA repair, and CD38/cyclic ADP-ribose signaling. NAD+ levels decline with age, and research investigates whether restoration of NAD+ pools can reverse aspects of cellular senescence and metabolic dysfunction.

Research Applications

  • Cellular energy metabolism and mitochondrial function research
  • Sirtuin activation and longevity pathway studies
  • DNA damage repair mechanism research
  • Neurodegeneration and neuroprotection models
  • Age-related NAD+ decline and supplementation studies

Referenced Studies

  • Verdin (2015) — NAD+ in aging, metabolism, and neurodegeneration (Science)
  • Yoshino et al. (2018) — NAD+ intermediates: The biology and therapeutic potential of NMN and NR
  • Rajman et al. (2018) — Therapeutic potential of NAD-boosting molecules: The in vivo evidence
coenzymesirtuinmitochondriallongevity researchDNA repair

Sequence

Ac-Nle4-cyclo[Asp5-His6-D-Phe7-Arg8-Trp9-Lys10]-OH

Molecular Weight

1024.2 Da

A cyclic synthetic analogue of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH), studied for its potent and broad melanocortin receptor agonism. Research applications span pigmentation biology, sexual function, and appetite regulation.

Mechanism of Action

Melanotan II non-selectively activates MC1R, MC3R, MC4R, and MC5R receptors. MC1R activation stimulates melanogenesis in melanocytes, increasing eumelanin production. MC4R activation in the hypothalamus modulates appetite and sexual arousal pathways. Its broad receptor profile distinguishes it from the more selective PT-141, which was derived from MT-II to improve selectivity.

Research Applications

  • Melanogenesis and skin pigmentation research
  • MC1R–MC5R receptor pharmacology studies
  • Appetite suppression and energy homeostasis models
  • Sexual arousal and erectile function research
  • Erythropoietic protoporphyria (EPP) photoprotection models

Referenced Studies

  • Dorr et al. (1996) — Evaluation of Melanotan-II, a superpotent cyclic melanotropic peptide in a pilot phase-I clinical study
  • Wessells et al. (1998) — Synthetic melanotropic peptide initiates erections in men with psychogenic erectile dysfunction
  • van der Ploeg et al. (2002) — Role of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone in the control of body weight
melanocortinMC1RMC4Rpigmentationbroad-spectrum agonist

Sequence

Cys-Tyr-Ile-Gln-Asn-Cys-Pro-Leu-Gly-NH2 (disulfide bridge Cys1–Cys6)

Molecular Weight

1007.2 Da

A nonapeptide neurohormone synthesized in the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary. Studied across a broad range of research domains including social bonding, stress response, uterine contractility, and metabolic regulation.

Mechanism of Action

Oxytocin binds to the oxytocin receptor (OXTR), a G-protein coupled receptor (Gq/11) expressed in the uterus, mammary glands, heart, kidney, and throughout the CNS. Central oxytocin signaling modulates the HPA axis stress response, dopaminergic reward circuits, and amygdala-mediated fear responses. Peripheral actions include uterine smooth muscle contraction and milk ejection reflex facilitation.

Research Applications

  • Social behavior and bonding neuroscience research
  • HPA axis and stress response modulation studies
  • Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) social cognition models
  • Uterine contractility and parturition research
  • Metabolic regulation and appetite suppression studies

Referenced Studies

  • Kosfeld et al. (2005) — Oxytocin increases trust in humans (Nature)
  • Guastella et al. (2010) — Intranasal oxytocin improves emotion recognition in autism spectrum disorder
  • Macdonald & Macdonald (2010) — The peptide that binds: A systematic review of oxytocin and its prosocial effects in humans
neurohormoneOXTRsocial bondingHPA axisneuropeptide

Sequence

Gly-His-Lys (complexed with Cu²⁺)

Molecular Weight

340.4 Da (free tripeptide); ~403.9 Da (copper complex)

A naturally occurring copper-binding tripeptide found in human plasma, saliva, and urine. Studied extensively for its roles in wound healing, skin remodeling, anti-inflammatory signaling, and gene expression regulation — with research interest spanning dermatology, tissue repair, and anti-aging biology.

Mechanism of Action

GHK-Cu chelates copper ions (Cu²⁺), facilitating their delivery to tissues where copper-dependent enzymes such as lysyl oxidase and superoxide dismutase (SOD) are active. Research indicates it upregulates collagen, elastin, and glycosaminoglycan synthesis while simultaneously activating matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) for remodeling of damaged tissue. Microarray studies suggest GHK-Cu modulates the expression of over 4,000 human genes, including pathways involved in inflammation resolution, DNA repair, and stem cell activation.

Research Applications

  • Dermal wound healing and skin remodeling research
  • Collagen and elastin synthesis studies
  • Anti-inflammatory gene expression research
  • Hair follicle stimulation and alopecia models
  • Systemic tissue repair and anti-aging biology

Referenced Studies

  • Pickart & Margolina (2018) — Regenerative and protective actions of the GHK-Cu peptide in the light of the new gene data
  • Pickart et al. (2012) — GHK peptide as a natural modulator of multiple cellular pathways in skin regeneration
  • Gorouhi & Maibach (2009) — Role of topical peptides in preventing or treating aged skin
copper peptidecollagen synthesiswound healinggene expressionanti-aging

Sequence

Trans-3-hexenoic acid-modified GHRH(1-44)-NH2

Molecular Weight

5135.8 Da

A synthetic analogue of endogenous growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) stabilized with a trans-3-hexenoic acid modification. Studied for its ability to stimulate pulsatile GH secretion and reduce visceral adipose tissue in metabolic research models.

Mechanism of Action

Tesamorelin binds to pituitary GHRH receptors, stimulating the physiological pulsatile release of growth hormone while preserving the natural GH feedback axis. Unlike exogenous GH administration, it works upstream through the pituitary, maintaining IGF-1 regulation. The N-terminal fatty acid modification protects against dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP-IV) degradation, significantly extending its half-life compared to native GHRH(1-44).

Research Applications

  • Visceral adipose tissue reduction research
  • HIV-associated lipodystrophy metabolic models
  • Pituitary GHRH receptor pharmacology studies
  • IGF-1 axis modulation and GH pulsatility research
  • Cognitive function and hippocampal volume studies in aging models

Referenced Studies

  • Falutz et al. (2007) — Metabolic effects of a growth hormone-releasing factor in patients with HIV (NEJM)
  • Falutz et al. (2010) — Effects of tesamorelin on visceral fat and liver fat in HIV-infected patients with abdominal fat accumulation
  • Bhatt et al. (2018) — Tesamorelin reduces liver fat and improves metabolic parameters in HIV-infected patients
GHRH analoguevisceral fatpituitaryIGF-1metabolic

Sequence

MRWQEMGYIFYPRKLR

Molecular Weight

2174.6 Da

A mitochondria-derived peptide (MDP) encoded within the 12S ribosomal RNA gene of the mitochondrial genome. MOTS-c is studied as a mitochondrial signaling molecule with systemic effects on metabolic homeostasis, insulin sensitivity, and cellular stress resilience — representing a novel class of peptide with origins entirely within the mitochondrial genome.

Mechanism of Action

MOTS-c translocates from mitochondria to the nucleus in response to metabolic stress, where it regulates nuclear gene expression through AMPK activation and the folate cycle/AICAR pathway. It inhibits the de novo purine biosynthesis pathway, increasing AICAR levels and activating AMPK-dependent metabolic reprogramming. Research also indicates MOTS-c modulates reactive oxygen species (ROS) and promotes mitochondrial biogenesis, with circulating levels shown to decline with age in human studies.

Research Applications

  • Mitochondrial-nuclear communication and retrograde signaling research
  • Insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes metabolic models
  • Exercise mimetic and skeletal muscle metabolism studies
  • Aging and longevity biology research
  • Obesity and adipose tissue metabolism models

Referenced Studies

  • Lee et al. (2015) — The mitochondrial-derived peptide MOTS-c promotes metabolic homeostasis and reduces obesity and insulin resistance (Cell Metabolism)
  • Reynolds et al. (2021) — MOTS-c is an exercise-induced mitochondrial-encoded regulator of age-dependent physical decline and muscle homeostasis
  • Kim et al. (2018) — Mitochondrial peptides modulate mitochondrial function during cellular senescence
mitochondrial peptideAMPKinsulin sensitivitylongevityexercise mimetic

Sequence

Combined stack: BPC-157 (Gly-Glu-Pro-Pro-Pro-Gly-Lys-Pro-Ala-Asp-Asp-Ala-Gly-Leu-Val) + TB-500 (Ac-LKKTETQ fragment)

Molecular Weight

BPC-157: 1419.5 Da; TB-500: ~4963 Da

The 'Wolverine Peptide' is a colloquial term in research circles for a combined stack of BPC-157 and TB-500, named for the Marvel character's legendary regenerative abilities. The combination is studied for its potentially synergistic tissue repair, anti-inflammatory, and recovery-enhancing properties that exceed either compound used in isolation.

Mechanism of Action

The stack combines two complementary repair mechanisms: BPC-157 activates the FAK-paxillin pathway to promote angiogenesis, upregulate GH receptor expression, and modulate nitric oxide signaling for accelerated wound healing; while TB-500 binds G-actin to regulate cytoskeletal dynamics, promote cell migration, and reduce inflammation via cytokine modulation. Together, research models suggest the combination addresses both vascular repair (BPC-157) and cellular scaffolding and migration (TB-500), potentially producing additive or synergistic regenerative effects across musculoskeletal, gastrointestinal, and neural tissues.

Research Applications

  • Synergistic musculoskeletal tissue repair research
  • Combined angiogenesis and cell migration studies
  • Accelerated wound healing and recovery models
  • Multi-pathway anti-inflammatory research protocols
  • Comparative single vs. combination peptide stack studies

Referenced Studies

  • See individual entries: BPC-157 — Sikiric et al. (2018); TB-500 — Goldstein & Kleinman (2015)
  • Chang et al. (2011) — BPC-157 and tendon healing; Philp et al. (2004) — Thymosin beta4 and cardiac repair
  • Note: Direct clinical studies on the combined BPC-157/TB-500 stack are limited; research is primarily preclinical and mechanistic
combination stackBPC-157TB-500synergistic repairmusculoskeletal

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